There was a time, well before the
Turkic population movements, when
central Asia was speaking Indo-european languages. During antiquity,
Indo-iranian languages were once spoken by populations from the east of Europe up to the
Altai mountains of
south Siberia (
Scythians,
Sakas and
Sarmatians were such peoples) and down to
south Asia.
Nevertheless, prior to this situation, another kind of
Indo-european language was apparently present in
Asia.
In central Asia, blue eyes can also sometimes be found in the population.
The first (supposedly) Indo-european migration eastwards (from its ancestral home of
Ukraine and
south Russia) we find tracks of, occured right before 3,500 BC and gave birth to the
Afanasevo culture, whose extent was from
Kazakhstan to
south Siberia and
Mongolia. It is likely that the population of the
Afanasevo culture was speaking a language that was the ancestor of the
Tocharian language (see the
Xinjiang article for more details).
Young woman from Turkmenistan
Woman from Central Asia with Europoid characteristics.
The ancient DNA and the archeology reveal hints of this ancient past.
A 2004 study expose the nature of the bronze age population (in this
study the samples are precisely from 1,300 BC to 400 AD) of
Kazakhstan :
“Unravelling migrations in the steppe: mitochondrial DNA sequences from ancient central Asians” (Lalueza-fox et al, 2004 – source)
“The distribution of east and west Eurasian lineages
through time in the region is concordant with the available
archaeological information: prior to the (…) seventh century BC, all Kazakh samples belong to European lineages;
while later an arrival of east Eurasian sequences that coexisted with
the previous west Eurasian genetic substratum can be detected. The
presence of an ancient genetic substratum of European origin in West
Asia may be related to the discovery of ancient mummies with European
features in Xinjiang and to the existence of an extinct Indo-European
language, Tocharian”
[...]
“Most of the retrieved sequences (n = 21, 78%) belong to European (or west Eurasian) mtDNA haplogroups (HV, H, T, I, U and W haplogroups).”
[...]
“Haplogroups present in modern Kazakhs, such as B, F, C, Z, D, R, J and Y [Pastmists : almost all typically east-Asian], were not observed in the prehistoric Kazakhs [Pastmists
: here, the earliest samples are from the bronze age]. By contrast, two
haplogroups observed among the ancient samples, W and I, have not yet
been found among modern Kazakhs. The results also indicate that
there is an excess of west Eurasian haplogroups in comparison with those
currently found (notably haplogroups H and U). However, this may be attributed to the overrepresentation of the earlier temporal period with only west Eurasian haplogroups. The
observed absence of east Eurasian sequences prior to the eighth to
seventh century BC suggests an earlier prehistoric expansion of peoples
containing west Eurasian sequences into Asia, that probably went further
east, into present-day China. This expansion may be related to
the discovery of mummies that contain European features and west
Eurasian mtDNA sequences in the Tarim basin, China, as well as the
relict Indo-European Tocharian.”
Kyrgyz man with very blue eyes.
South Siberia was also once populated mostly by Europoid populations, likely speaking the ancestor of the
Tocharian language, in what is known as the
Afanasevo culture, appearing as early as
3,500 BC roughly mirroring the supposed Indo-european population movements into the north of Europe at the same time (
the similar dates of these population movements, both east and west, probably explain the resemblances between Tocharian, the easternmost Indo-european language, and the westernmost Indo-european languages, found in Europe - Indo-iranian language being likely spread by a later population movement spreading the satem innovation (see below)
now overwhelmingly present in Asia but not in the tocharian language). Both these migrations have their origin in the north of the black sea, in the
srednij stog and
yamnaya cultures of
Ukraine and
south Russia, a relation hinted in archeology, even more clearly in Asia. In its easternmost known extent, the
Afanasevo culture reached the
west of Mongolia.
Tracks of these ancient (supposedly) Indo-european migrations can be found in archeology but also in the ancient DNA.
“Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people” (Keyser et al, 2009 – source)
“To help unravel some of the early Eurasian steppe
migration movements, we determined the Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial
haplotypes and haplogroups of 26 ancient human specimens from
the Krasnoyarsk area dated from between the middle of the second
millennium BC. to the fourth century AD. In order to go further
in the search of the geographic origin and physical traits of these
south Siberian specimens, we also typed phenotype-informative single
nucleotide polymorphisms. Our autosomal, Y-chromosomal and
mitochondrial DNA analyses reveal that whereas few specimens seem to be
related matrilineally or patrilineally, nearly all subjects belong to
haplogroup R1a1-M17 which is thought to mark the eastward migration of
the early Indo-Europeans. Our results also confirm that at the Bronze
and Iron Ages, south Siberia was a region of overwhelmingly predominant
European settlement, suggesting an eastward migration of Kurgan people
across the Russo-Kazakh steppe. Finally, our data
indicate that at the Bronze and Iron Age timeframe, south Siberians were
blue (or green)-eyed, fair-skinned and light-haired people and that
they might have played a role in the early development of the Tarim
Basin civilization [i.e. in Xinjiang, northwest China]. To the best of our knowledge, no equivalent molecular analysis has been undertaken so far. “
The study also reveals that
during bronze age,90% ofthe mtDNA haplogroups (female lineages) – such as U2, U4, U5a1, T1, T3, T4, H5a, H6, HV, K and I –
were west Eurasian/Europoid (and 67% during iron age).
Several of these mtDNA genetic signatures have an exact match in Europe
(like for instance mtDNA haplogroup I4 and T1 who are frequently found
in the north and north-east of Europe (in the case of T1, the Baltic
area is apparently where its frequency is the highest; this very
haplotype was also found in ancient DNA from the ancient remains of
Kazakhstan (Lalueza-fox et al. 2004) and
Xinjiang (Gao et al. 2008)), the U5a1 haplotype is found in north-west Europe, the specific U2e haplotype was found nowadays in an
east European individual and in only one
Uyghur,
the K2b haplotype was found in only two individuals, two Europeans (one
Austrian and one Hungarian) and the precise U4 haplotypes of the study
were found mostly in the north, the east, the north-east and the
south-east of Europe and in the Volga-Ural area as well (but also a few
in the
Altai region up to the
Baikal area), etc…).
The fact that the male lineage, the haplogroup Y-DNA
R1a1a,
was associated almost exclusively with such west Eurasian mtDNA
haplogroups in the female lineages, in the oldest analyzed period,
clearly points to a migration from eastern Europe, especially
considering archeology which support this view, as the
Afanasevo culture had several similarities with the
Yamna culture of the north of the black sea.
It is also mentionned that at least 60% of the tested ancient individuals had light hair and blue or green eyes.
On
this picture, one can see that most of the ancient remains of south
Siberian individuals whose DNA have been tested in 2008 can be
classified among the Europeans, as for pigmentation-related loci (a
locus is a location in the DNA).
Interestingly, the oldest mummies from the
Tarim basin of
Xinjiang (north-western China), among the 2,000 BCE
Xiaohe people, were also
all R1a1a (and with a few mtDNA lineages having matches in modern Europe, as far as
Iceland and
Great Britain) (
source).
The Europoid haplogroups, though rather rare in
Mongolia, are findable there (sources
here and
here). This is also illustrated by the ancient DNA.
“A western Eurasian male is found in 2000-year-old elite Xiongnu cemetery in Northeast Mongolia” (
source)
“We analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), Y-chromosome
single nucleotide polymorphisms (Y-SNP), and autosomal short tandem
repeats (STR) of three skeletons found in a 2,000-year-old Xiongnu elite cemetery in Duurlig Nars of Northeast Mongolia.“
“The DNA analyses revealed that one subject was an ancient male skeleton with maternal U2e1
[pastmists: U2e is the European subgroup of U2, an ancient Eurasian
mtDNA haplogroup (An haplogroup whose ultimate paleolithical origin is
probably India). A more than 30,000 years old man found at Kostenki,
south Russia, was found to be U2] and paternal R1a1 haplogroups. This is the first genetic evidence that a male of distinctive Indo-European lineages (R1a1) was present in the Xiongnu of Mongolia“
Oirat
Mongol, an ethnical group found in Mongolia, China and Russia. Blue
eyes and light hair are sometimes found in these Asian lands even if
rarely.
Little blue-eyed blond Mongol girl
Oirat Mongolian girl from the west of Mongolia
The human remains also reveal the change in the population of the
Altai :
“According to paleoanthropological data, the
Caucasoid (in respect of its morphological features) population
predominated in the steppes of the Altai–Sayan region during the
Neolithic [Pastmists : here, apparently at least starting with the Chalcolithic time], Bronze, and partly early Iron Ages
[1–3]. At that time the Mongoloid component was observed only in few
cases. However, beginning from the early Iron Age, the presence of this
component has been increasing, and becoming prevalent in modern times.
Thus, dynamics of the anthropological composition of the Altai–Sayan
populations can be characterized by definitely directed replacement of
the Caucasoid component by the Mongoloid one.” (excerpt from « Origin of Caucasoid-Specific Mitochondrial DNA Lineages in the Ethnic Groups of the Altai–Sayan Region » (Derenko et al. 2002) | source )
The study
« Moleculargenetic analysis of Wanggu remains, inner Mongolia, China » (Yuqin Fu et al. 2006) [
source] also reveals a “Caucasoid” input in the ancient
Wanggu tribe :
“Recently, we discovered human remains of the Wanggu
tribe in the Chengbozi cemetery in the Siziwang Banner of Inner
Mongolia, China. [...] Our results show that the genetic structure of
the Wanggu tribe in the Jin-Yuan period is a complex matriline,
containing admixture from both Asian and European populations.”
In 2004, the study
“Different Matrilineal Contributions to Genetic Structure of Ethnic Groups in the Silk Road Region in China” (
Yao et al, 2004) estimated the
west eurasian input among the Mongolian maternal lineages to
14.3 % (
source in PDF format).
It’s also interesting to note that a study on the Eurasian cattle
revealed that the Mongolian cattle is partially derived from the
European cattle (source :
“Genetic diversity and structure in Bos Taurus and bos Indicus populations analyzed by SNP markers”), which reminds of similar conclusions found about the Japanese cattle (see the
Xinjiang article for more details). In this context it is also interesting to mention that the Turkic
öküz (meaning
ox in English (same ancestral root), a word also akin to Sanskrit
ukṣán) resembles Tocharian B
okso.
Let’s add, to seal the case, a new study ( “Brief
Communication: Two-Rooted Lower Canines—A European Trait and Sensitive
Indicator of Admixture Across Eurasia”, Christine Lee and G. Richard
Scott, American Journal of Physical Anthropology (2011), DOI:
10.1002/ajpa.21585 | source ) showing a basically European-specific dental trait, absent in east Asia, but particularly present among Afanasevo, Scythian, Uyghur populations and even in the Ordos (*) region in northern China, as a marker of ancient bronze age (presumed Indo-european) migrations :
“The presence
of the two-rooted canines in East Asia may provide some clue as to the
eastward migration of new populations into China and Mongolia. The largest numbers of individuals with this trait are concentrated along the western and northern frontiers of China and Mongolia.
Archaeological excavations support the large scale movement of people
into this area during the Bronze age (ca. 2200 BCE–400 BCE). Burial artifacts and settlement patterns suggest cultural and technological ties to the Afanasevo culture in Siberia, which in turn is linked
archaeologically, linguistically, and genetically with the
Indo-European Tocharian populations that appear to have migrated to the
Tarim Basin ca. 4,000 years ago (Ma and Sun, 1992; Ma and Wang, 1992; Mallory and Mair, 2000; Romgard, 2008; Keyser et al., 2009; Li et al., 2010).”
(*) This seems to be confirmed by archaeology (
source)
: “According
to Lebedynsky, the people represented in archaeological finds tend to
display Europoïd features, and are thought to be of Scythian
affinity. The weapons, found in tombs throughout the steppes of the
Ordos, are very close to those of the Scythians, especially the Sakas.“
As for the main Indo-european group of the Indo-european language family in Asia, the
Indo-iranians, their ancestors supposedly migrated from the north of the black sea probably becoming the
proto-indo-iranians in the region going from
Russia up to the
north west of Kazakhstan roughly between 2,500 BC to 2,000 BC (explaining the presence of
very early Indo-iranian loanwords in
Finno-ugric languages (such as
Finnish) and east Caucasian languages), spreading progressively up to
south Siberia and s
outh of central Asia leaving their tracks in an archaeological horizon named the
Andronovo culture, supposedly giving ultimately birth to the
Scythian/Saka population.
Mummy of a scytho-siberian individual from Tuva, a Russian republic located north of the west of Mongolia.
It must be noted that the oldest written tracks of Indo-iranian language are not found in south Asia but in
northern Syria, in a kingdom named
Mitanni, in inscriptions dated around 1,400 BC. All the kings of this realm had
Indo-aryan throne names, even when they had Hurrian names before being crowned and their capital was named
Waššukanni which derives from old Indic
vasu-khani (literally
“wealth mine”).
The
Mitanni inscriptions are in
Hurrian, a non-indo-european language (whose ultimate origin is thought to be either
Caucasus or
Armenia), but
indo-iranian terms linked to horses and chariots (and Indo-Aryan divinities as well) are found in these texts.
Given the fact that the oldest found tracks of chariot and horse-riding are found near the
south of the Urals (examples about early chariots :
Sintashta site (
also here) |
Saratov site)
and in the north of central Asia, it can be surmised that their use was
spread by Indo-iranians in Anatolia, west Asia and south Asia.
The current location of Indo-aryan languages (
India) and the bronze age tracks of it —
Mitanni kingdom in north Syria, or also for instance the Indo-aryan name of a governor of Qiltu near
Jerusalem, in
Palestine, named
suardata (apparently from Indo-aryan svàr-data: “gift from the sun” [
svàr in Sanskrit, and its Indo-european cousins; a word having quite likely an etymological relation with the name of the Slavic deity
Svarog
(father of a solar deity) or for instance the Russian verb svarit' ("to
burn", "to cook")]) during roughly the same time (there are also
possibly some tracks of borrowed Indo-aryan words in the
Kassite dynasty in
Babylonia
– could spontaneously lead us to see the source of Indo-aryan
languages in west Asia but as previously stated, many words from the
Indo-iranian language family – sometimes from the
proto-indo-iranian or at least at a very early stage of Indo-iranian – can be found in the
Finno-ugric languages (languages such as
Finnish,
Estonian or
Saami) and languages from the
eastern Caucasus rather supports a different place of origin (
the
fact that these loanwords have been entering these Finno-ugric
languages * at diverse stages of evolution of the Indo-iranian language
confirm that the Finno-ugric populations have been in close contact
with Indo-iranian-speaking populations for many centuries, and the fact
that some of these loanwords seem to pertain to the proto-Indo-iranian
stage supports the idea that these loanwords aren’t just a legacy of
the Scythian and Sarmatian populations. It does support the theory of a
homeland of the original Indo-iranians actually in the Russia
**-northwest Kazakhstan region). Even in
Ugric languages, some words are clearly closer to the
Indo-aryan language family than to the
Iranic one (e.g.
Hungarian tehén (cow) is
closer to Sanskrit dhenu- (see
Punjabi dhen) than to
Avestan dainu (
Vedic Sanskrit (earliest known Indo-aryan language) and
Avestan (earliest known Iranic language) were still quite close from each others (it is said that these two languages were definitely closer than
Italian and
Spanish are to each others)). Interestingly, Hungarian
szekér (“chariot”) would be derived from an Indo-aryan
*śaka-ra.)
*
A few examples (among many others) of Indo-iranian roots in
Finno-ugric languages that can be found in “The indo-aryan controversy”
by Edwin Bryant and Laurie Patton:
Mordvin sazor (younger sister), Udmurt sazer (younger sister) — Sanskrit svasar (sister)
Komi sur, Udmurt sura (beer) — Sanskrit surā- (intoxicating drink)
Finnish and Ostya udar (udder) — Sanskrit udhar (udder)
Finnish marras (dead) — Sanskrit mṛtas (dead)
Finnish muru (crumb), Mansi mur, mor- (crumble) — Sanskrit mur (crumble), Saka murr (crumble), Ossetian mur- (crumb)
Hungarian tei (milk) — Hindi dhai (actually dahi), Kashmiri dai (soured milk)
Finnish sarvi (horn), Mordvin suro, Komi and Udmurt sur, Mari sur — Ossetian sarv, Avestan sru, srva (and sanskrit śṛṇga-)
Mansi mant (bucket) — Sanskrit mantha, manthana, Pali mantha
Finnish vasa, Ostya vasik, Mansi vasir, Hungarian üszo (bull) — Old Iranian vasa, Ossetian waes, Sanskrit vatsa (calf) (and Sanskrit vṛṣa (bull))
and so on.
** It should be mentionned that the Abashevo culture
in Russia, is seen as a possible source for the proto-indo-iranian
language and indeed the Abashevo culture was influential in the Sintashta site where are seen the oldest known expression of Indo-iranian-like rituals, according to many specialists.
“In 1370 BC a treaty between the king of Mitanni,
Mattiwaza (old reading Kurtiwaza), and the Hittite king, Suppiluliumas,
was concluded and there is an oath guaranteed by a series of gods including such Indo-aryan divinities as Indra, Mithra, Varuna and Nasatya. In the 14th century BC in the hittite city of Bogazkoy (pastmists: in this time named Hattusa)
a trainer from the land of the Mitanni named Kikkuli composed a
treatise on horse training where he employed numerous Indo-Aryan terms
(Thieme 1960; Mayhofer 1966; 1974; Kemmenhuber 1968). The first time
the Indo-aryans appeared in the Near East dates, however, from the 17th
century BC when the Hurrians (non-Indo-European) came from north-east
Anatolia and founded the Mitanni kingdom. It was dominated by
Indo-Aryans who had brought chariots, blood-horses, and the skills of
horse-training. The names of Mitanni kings known from documents of the Tel-Amarna [Tell el-amarna] archive in Egypt and from the cuneiform texts and seals of the Near East are Indo-Aryan. The Indo-Aryans formed elite charioteer squadrons (Yankoska 1979; 1981; 1987). Judging
by the descriptions of their dress and weapons, which included a hood, a
bow, and a quiver with shaft-hole arrows (Zaccani 1978), the Aryans had
come to Mitanni from the steppes. None of those features were known in the near East but had analogues only in the steppes.
This is an elite dominance migration pattern: The dominance is secured
by the introduction of new chariot battle tactics. The dominant group
was presumably small and soon assimilated.”
“The origin of the indo-iranians, volume 3“ p. 322, by Elena E. Kuz’mina
Seemingly confirming this theory, many of the words meaning
“horse” throughout west Asia during antiquity seem derived from the
satem form of the Indo-european root designating the horse (
*ekwos), pointing again towards the Indo-iranians (speaking a
satem Indo-european language in which horse was said
“asva“) as the spreaders of mounted horses and chariotry in this region during bronze age (like for instance:
Hurrian “
essi“,
Akkadian “
sissu” and several others. Among them, quite revealing are the
Hittite word “
azu(wa)“, the
Luwian assuwa and the
Ugaritic “
ssw” which are extremely close to the
Indo-iranian word and seem to clearly be a loanword from this language family. The rise of the
Hittites (an Indo-european Anatolian people (i.e. from modern day
Turkey) whose language isn’t a
satem language), that was posterior to the rise of the
Mitanni (that were also their direct neighbors), owed much to an efficient use of chariotry.
The specialists generally consider
satem a later innovation well after the
proto-indo-european language which was
centum-like. This conforts the idea that the horse was introduced and domesticated late in
west Asia and the
Near East, apparently disproving the theory that the Indo-european languages appeared in either
Asia minor or the
Middle-East, as the stem for “
horse” was omnipresent in basically all the Indo-european languages and, as such, obviously already part of the
proto-indo-european language
from which almost all the known Indo-european languages are derived
(with maybe the exception of the Anatolian languages that could be
derived from an earlier stage) while the horse was basically absent
until the
last part of bronze age in most of west Asia (regions such as the
middle or
near-East and most of
Asia minor).
Cultures supposedly at the origin of the spread of the Indo-iranian language family within the Kurgan theory context.
In south Asia, the
Gandhara graves culture of
Swat Valley in
northern Pakistan seems to represent the advance of these Indo-iranians in south Asia, also importing the horse in these lands.
A
comparison between the burial rites of the bronze age Andronovo culture
(central Asia and south Siberia) and the bronze age Swat culture (north
Pakistan). In the latter case, the Swat culture, also known as the
Gandhara grave culture, it is a change in the local tradition. (picture
from “The origins of the Indo-iranians” by Elena E. Kuz’mina)
Some phenotypes of current
south Asia seem to keep the track of this ancient migration from
Central Asia occuring during
bronze age (more of such pictures to be found on this blog
here and
here) :
Young Kalash woman from the Chitral district of north-western Pakistan
Sharbat Gula, the famous Afghan girl whose picture was on the cover of the National Geographic.
Little girl from Afghanistan
Afghans from the village of Deh-e Hazara
Wakhi
girl from the extreme east of Afghanistan, a region located between the
south of Tajikistan, the west of China and the north of Pakistan
Afghan kids in Jalalabad (Afghanistan)
Afghan children from Panjshir
Little Hazara girl (Afghanistan)
Young girl from the north of Pakistan
Man from the north of Pakistan
Pashtun boy from Pakistan
Man from the Chitral district (North Pakistan)
A teenager from northern Pakistan
Little Indian girl (India)
Indian boy from the Himachal Pradesh, north of India
Nowadays, the west Eurasian haplogroups are still found in the central Asian (and south Siberian, like the
Altaians) populations even though they are mixed with numerous east Asian haplogroups.
This map from a september 2010 study,
“In the heartland of Eurasia: the multilocus genetic landscape of Central Asian populations“ (
Martinez-Cruz et al. 2010 ;
European Journal of Human Genetics , (8 September 2010) | doi:10.1038/ejhg.2010.153), describe the origin of the populations having contributed to the
Uzbekistan,
Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan modern populations (also showing the differences within the different linguistic families,
Turkic or
Indo-iranian) :
Origin of the populations having contributed to the Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan modern populations
Like in the
east of Afghanistan and the
north of Pakistan,
Tajikistan, a region speaking an
Indo-iranian language related to
Persian, is known to harbor a certain number of
Europoid individuals in its autochthonous population.
Young Tajik boys
Tajik boy
Two Tajik boys, in south Tajikistan
“In fact, it’s in the more eastern variants of the Andronovo civilization – notably in the Bishkent culture, in the south of Tajikistan – that a probable expression of indo-iranian rituals is visible in the archeological clues. In
the Tulkhar cemetery, the sepultures of the males have a little
rectangular hearths that quite remind of the altar-hearth (ahavaniya) of
the first indo-aryan priests while the tombs of the females have got
little circular hearths that evoke the garha-patya (always associated
with women) in the indo-aryan home.
Even if a few points are still quite controversial, the fundamentally indo-iranian identity of the bronze age steppic cultures is seen as almost certain.”
From “In search of the Indo-europeans. Language, archeology and myth”, J. P. Mallory
Two little children in the Vanj region, Tajikistan
Young Tajik girls from the Vanj district in the Pamir mountains
Tajik women
It
must be noted that the oldest tracks of Indo-iranian language are not
found in south Asia butin northern Syria, in a kingdom named Mitanni, in
inscriptions dated around 1,400 BC.
The Mitanni inscriptions are in Hurrian, a non-indo-european language
(whose origin is thought tobe Armenia or Caucasus – verif), but
indo-iranian terms linked to horses and chariots (and Indo-Aryan
divinities as well) are found in these texts.
Given that the oldest found tracks of chariot and horse-riding are found
near south of the Urals(Sintashta site | Saratov site) and in the north
of central Asia, it can be surmised that theiruse was spread by
Indo-iranians in Anatolia, west Asia and south Asia. Such a location for
theorigin of Indo-iranian is supported by the fact that many words from
the Indo-iranian languagefamily, sometimes from a very early stage of
Indo-iranian can be found in Finno-ugric languagesand languages from the
eastern Caucasus.
